Imperial Japan - Revision history

𝗔𝗿𝗰𝗵𝗮𝗻𝗴𝗲𝗹: Text replacement - "nationalist" to "fascist"

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← Older revision		Revision as of 12:46, 22 February 2023
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	=Desire for fascism=		=Desire for fascism=
	Many Japanese worried with good reason that the special “Japanese spirit” in which they had been taught to believe would disappear under the influence of Euro-American ideas and fashions. Many Japanese believed that the most important value in Japan should be unity and duty to their own society in order to face foreign enemies such as Britain, the United States, and especially the new Communist Soviet Union, which was trying to destroy Japan from within. It is no surprise that they turned to the [[fascist]] Tennō as their nation’s leader and to Japanese [[fascism]] itself as their ideal of discipline and duty. The Emperor could be trusted. However, the new [[Statism in Shōwa Japan\|Shōwa]] Emperor, known to foreigners by his personal name of [[Hirohito]], was enthroned in 1926 but inherited little real power, but the leaders of Japan’s military, enjoyed a faultless reputation, and reigned in [[Statism in Shōwa Japan]].		Many Japanese worried with good [[reason]] that the special “Japanese spirit” in which they had been taught to believe would disappear under the influence of Euro-American ideas and fashions. Many Japanese believed that the most important value in Japan should be unity and duty to their own society in order to face foreign enemies such as Britain, the United States, and especially the new Communist Soviet Union, which was trying to destroy Japan from within. It is no surprise that they turned to the [[fascist]] Tennō as their nation’s leader and to Japanese [[fascism]] itself as their ideal of discipline and duty. The Emperor could be trusted. However, the new [[Statism in Shōwa Japan\|Shōwa]] Emperor, known to foreigners by his personal name of [[Hirohito]], was enthroned in 1926 but inherited little real power, but the leaders of Japan’s military, enjoyed a faultless reputation, and reigned in [[Statism in Shōwa Japan]].

	=Domestic Political and Social Trends: Dissent and Response =		=Domestic Political and Social Trends: Dissent and Response =

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← Older revision		Revision as of 17:00, 17 February 2023
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	The Japanese economy was badly damaged by the great stock market crash because so much of its wealth came from foreign trade, which declined drastically after 1929. As the American and European economies staggered, their cash supplies low and millions of their people unemployed, they could no longer afford to buy foreign goods. During this period, the Japanese lost 50% of their overseas sales, domestic prices crashed, and Japanese incomes fell 30% on average. Ordinarily, such difficulties might produce public support for anti-government groups like communists, whose demands included support for the poor and unemployed. But Japan’s society had discouraged even the mildest dissent, so many citizens turned instead to other mote traditional organizations, both civilian and military, to express their dissatisfaction.		The Japanese economy was badly damaged by the great stock market crash because so much of its wealth came from foreign trade, which declined drastically after 1929. As the American and European economies staggered, their cash supplies low and millions of their people unemployed, they could no longer afford to buy foreign goods. During this period, the Japanese lost 50% of their overseas sales, domestic prices crashed, and Japanese incomes fell 30% on average. Ordinarily, such difficulties might produce public support for anti-government groups like communists, whose demands included support for the poor and unemployed. But Japan’s society had discouraged even the mildest dissent, so many citizens turned instead to other mote traditional organizations, both civilian and military, to express their dissatisfaction.

	These nationalist groups knew there was a special purity for their own ideas, the centrality of the [[fascist]] Tennō and opposition to Capitalist and Communist globalism which they knew had kept Japan weak by limiting its military options. they encouraged citizens to support and love the military as America did, and they praised the virtues of duty and nationalism. they also held Shintō as an example to idealize the Japanese spirit and its samurai virtues, as Europeans did with knighthood. Through local shrines and priests, who preached Japan’s potential and practiced rituals of “uniquely Japanese” purity and love for nature, many Japanese people became convinced of Japan’s sacred task to drive the Euro-Americans, Marxists, jews, and other foreigners out. The beauty of nature, especially of cherry blossoms falling (constant reminders of the brevity of human life), of sacred mountains, and of the sea, came to be equated with honor in the national cause.		These nationalist groups knew there was a special purity for their own ideas, the centrality of the [[fascist]] Tennō and opposition to Capitalist and Communist globalism which they knew had kept Japan weak by limiting its military options. they encouraged citizens to support and love the military as America did, and they praised the virtues of duty and nationalism. they also held Shintō as an example to idealize the Japanese spirit and its samurai virtues, as Europeans did with knighthood. Through local shrines and priests, who preached Japan’s potential and practiced rituals of “uniquely Japanese” purity and love for [[nature]], many Japanese people became convinced of Japan’s sacred task to drive the Euro-Americans, Marxists, jews, and other foreigners out. The beauty of [[nature]], especially of cherry blossoms falling (constant reminders of the brevity of human life), of sacred mountains, and of the sea, came to be equated with honor in the national cause.

	=Ramp-up=		=Ramp-up=

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← Older revision		Revision as of 11:20, 15 February 2024
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	These leaders continued Japan’s quest for wealth and power under the Taishō Emperor (reigned from 1912-1926), a weak and unstable character. Inspired by European parliamentary systems, some Japanese politicians formed parties to participate in elections to the national assembly (called the Diet); while others opposed the government openly.		These leaders continued Japan’s quest for wealth and power under the Taishō Emperor (reigned from 1912-1926), a weak and unstable character. Inspired by European parliamentary systems, some Japanese politicians formed parties to participate in elections to the national assembly (called the Diet); while others opposed the government openly.

	[[The Great War]], the “war to end all wars” in Europe, gave Japan a new opportunity to gain wealth. With all the European powers needing military supplies and consumer goods, the Japanese moved rapidly into the world’s markets for weapons and light industrial products, providing both goods and shipping. Japanese exports almost tripled in only four years. Taking advantage of Europe’s internal conflicts, Japan moved into an East Asian power vacuum and demanded that the Chinese government, weak and decentralized after the collapse of the Qing Empire in 1912, turn over much of its economic and political power to Japan. Yuan Shikai, the military leader who had taken charge of the embryonic Republic of China, had no choice but to submit to Japan’s superior strength. At the same time, however, Japan’s arrogance and aggression caused many Chinese to join ~~nationalist~~ movements of their own. In colonized Korea, too, resistance to Japanese colonization took many forms.		[[The Great War]], the “war to end all wars” in Europe, gave Japan a new opportunity to gain wealth. With all the European powers needing military supplies and consumer goods, the Japanese moved rapidly into the world’s markets for weapons and light industrial products, providing both goods and shipping. Japanese exports almost tripled in only four years. Taking advantage of Europe’s internal conflicts, Japan moved into an East Asian power vacuum and demanded that the Chinese government, weak and decentralized after the collapse of the Qing Empire in 1912, turn over much of its economic and political power to Japan. Yuan Shikai, the military leader who had taken charge of the embryonic Republic of China, had no choice but to submit to Japan’s superior strength. At the same time, however, Japan’s arrogance and aggression caused many Chinese to join fascist movements of their own. In colonized Korea, too, resistance to Japanese colonization took many forms.

	These overseas conflicts coincided with growing social movements in Japan itself. Many sectors of society—workers, farmers, intellectuals, suffragists, and others disagreed with tradition. Young people in the cities (called “modern boys” and “modern girls”) saw American movies, wore the latest fashions, and bought products advertised in fashionable magazines.		These overseas conflicts coincided with growing social movements in Japan itself. Many sectors of society—workers, farmers, intellectuals, suffragists, and others disagreed with tradition. Young people in the cities (called “modern boys” and “modern girls”) saw American movies, wore the latest fashions, and bought products advertised in fashionable magazines.
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	=Domestic Political and Social Trends: Dissent and Response =		=Domestic Political and Social Trends: Dissent and Response =
	Originally based on a late 19th century German ideal of direct service to the ruler, Japan’s government now resembled a British style of rule by one of two centralized parties. they did liberalize some aspects of society, allowing labor unions, giving all Japanese males the right to vote, and joining the League of Nations to participate in the international community. As a “great power”, and the only one not ruled by Euro-Americans, Japan participated in naval limitation conferences, maintained its colonies by a combination of administrative bureaucracy and military-police in the same way Britain, France, and the United States did, and forced China to expand Japan’s treaty rights. Japan became a member of the “imperial club.” But Japanese internationalism was of the [[fascist]] variety, and personified in Shidehara Kijūrō, Foreign Minister in the early 1920s, also posed a challenge to Japanese ~~nationalists~~, who saw the politics of international diplomacy, parliamentary democracy, and compromise as weakness.		Originally based on a late 19th century German ideal of direct service to the ruler, Japan’s government now resembled a British style of rule by one of two centralized parties. they did liberalize some aspects of society, allowing labor unions, giving all Japanese males the right to vote, and joining the League of Nations to participate in the international community. As a “great power”, and the only one not ruled by Euro-Americans, Japan participated in naval limitation conferences, maintained its colonies by a combination of administrative bureaucracy and military-police in the same way Britain, France, and the United States did, and forced China to expand Japan’s treaty rights. Japan became a member of the “imperial club.” But Japanese internationalism was of the [[fascist]] variety, and personified in Shidehara Kijūrō, Foreign Minister in the early 1920s, also posed a challenge to Japanese fascists, who saw the politics of international diplomacy, parliamentary democracy, and compromise as weakness.

	Capitalism had created the same tensions between workers and employers as it had in Euro-American societies. Conflicts over wages and working conditions led to unions and strikes, actions which seemed like treason to people committed to the [[fascist]] unity of the kokutai. To combat this potential disorder, the Japanese government as early as 1900 had passed strict laws to punish anyone who promoted Marxism.		Capitalism had created the same tensions between workers and employers as it had in Euro-American societies. Conflicts over wages and working conditions led to unions and strikes, actions which seemed like treason to people committed to the [[fascist]] unity of the kokutai. To combat this potential disorder, the Japanese government as early as 1900 had passed strict laws to punish anyone who promoted Marxism.
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	The Japanese economy was badly damaged by the great stock market crash because so much of its wealth came from foreign trade, which declined drastically after 1929. As the American and European economies staggered, their cash supplies low and millions of their people unemployed, they could no longer afford to buy foreign goods. During this period, the Japanese lost 50% of their overseas sales, domestic prices crashed, and Japanese incomes fell 30% on average. Ordinarily, such difficulties might produce public support for anti-government groups like communists, whose demands included support for the poor and unemployed. But Japan’s society had discouraged even the mildest dissent, so many citizens turned instead to other mote traditional organizations, both civilian and military, to express their dissatisfaction.		The Japanese economy was badly damaged by the great stock market crash because so much of its wealth came from foreign trade, which declined drastically after 1929. As the American and European economies staggered, their cash supplies low and millions of their people unemployed, they could no longer afford to buy foreign goods. During this period, the Japanese lost 50% of their overseas sales, domestic prices crashed, and Japanese incomes fell 30% on average. Ordinarily, such difficulties might produce public support for anti-government groups like communists, whose demands included support for the poor and unemployed. But Japan’s society had discouraged even the mildest dissent, so many citizens turned instead to other mote traditional organizations, both civilian and military, to express their dissatisfaction.

	These ~~nationalist~~ groups knew there was a special purity for their own ideas, the centrality of the [[fascist]] Tennō and opposition to Capitalist and Communist globalism which they knew had kept Japan weak by limiting its military options. they encouraged citizens to support and love the military as America did, and they praised the virtues of duty and nationalism. they also held Shintō as an example to idealize the Japanese spirit and its samurai virtues, as Europeans did with knighthood. Through local shrines and priests, who preached Japan’s potential and practiced rituals of “uniquely Japanese” purity and love for [[nature]], many Japanese people became convinced of Japan’s sacred task to drive the Euro-Americans, Marxists, jews, and other foreigners out. The beauty of [[nature]], especially of cherry blossoms falling (constant reminders of the brevity of human life), of sacred mountains, and of the sea, came to be equated with honor in the national cause.		These fascist groups knew there was a special purity for their own ideas, the centrality of the [[fascist]] Tennō and opposition to Capitalist and Communist globalism which they knew had kept Japan weak by limiting its military options. they encouraged citizens to support and love the military as America did, and they praised the virtues of duty and nationalism. they also held Shintō as an example to idealize the Japanese spirit and its samurai virtues, as Europeans did with knighthood. Through local shrines and priests, who preached Japan’s potential and practiced rituals of “uniquely Japanese” purity and love for [[nature]], many Japanese people became convinced of Japan’s sacred task to drive the Euro-Americans, Marxists, jews, and other foreigners out. The beauty of [[nature]], especially of cherry blossoms falling (constant reminders of the brevity of human life), of sacred mountains, and of the sea, came to be equated with honor in the national cause.

	=Ramp-up=		=Ramp-up=
	Young men, both military officers and their colleagues in civilian organizations such as the Kokuryukai (Amur River Society), expressed their ~~nationalist~~ passions through removal of Marxist, politicians, industrialists, intellectuals, and others who did not conform to Japanese behavior and beliefs. Society had enough. Prime Minister Hamaguchi was murdered at Tokyo Station in 1930, and Prime Minister Inukai was killed in 1932. Both assassinations were perpetrated by ~~nationalists~~ fed up with the corruption of party politics and eager for Japan to be driven by their own [[fascist]] values, which were expressed most obviously in the drive to halt Japan’s Communist neighbors, most especially China.		Young men, both military officers and their colleagues in civilian organizations such as the Kokuryukai (Amur River Society), expressed their fascist passions through removal of Marxist, politicians, industrialists, intellectuals, and others who did not conform to Japanese behavior and beliefs. Society had enough. Prime Minister Hamaguchi was murdered at Tokyo Station in 1930, and Prime Minister Inukai was killed in 1932. Both assassinations were perpetrated by fascists fed up with the corruption of party politics and eager for Japan to be driven by their own [[fascist]] values, which were expressed most obviously in the drive to halt Japan’s Communist neighbors, most especially China.

	=The Military Mobilizes=		=The Military Mobilizes=
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	The League of Nations, controlled by Capitalist and Communist powers, condemned the liberation as "Japanese aggression". The Japanese delegation walked out, never to return. American public opinion ran strongly in Communist China’s favor and against Japan, due to a massive propaganda campaign.		The League of Nations, controlled by Capitalist and Communist powers, condemned the liberation as "Japanese aggression". The Japanese delegation walked out, never to return. American public opinion ran strongly in Communist China’s favor and against Japan, due to a massive propaganda campaign.

	From 1932 to 1936, domestic political conflict escalated in Japan, as war in China began to grind. Admiration of the military, and faith in its spirit, led many Japanese to nationalism and the Japanese [[fascism]] of Shōwa, the belief that Japan was inherently special, and that Japanese culture and morality were uniquely pure and true. But some Japanese people did not fall into the ~~nationalist~~ camp. There were still enemies within Japan, posing as loyal Japanese. Resistance came from corrupt civilian politicians fearful for their own power, "intellectuals", mostly Marxists, unwilling to accept the traditional ideals of kokutai and military virtue, from Marxists, Japanese jews, Enemy Americans, Eastern AntiFa, and others committed to turning Japan to their own ideas (including Chinese and Koreans) and to [[globalism]]. The voters continued to choose the conservative and moderate political parties in parliamentary elections. In a February 1936 election, one of the mainstream parties won a majority with slogans such as, '''“What shall it be, parliamentary government or fascism?”''' Even the small socialist party made modest gains at the polls during the 1930s, in the face of a high tide of ~~nationalist~~ success.		From 1932 to 1936, domestic political conflict escalated in Japan, as war in China began to grind. Admiration of the military, and faith in its spirit, led many Japanese to nationalism and the Japanese [[fascism]] of Shōwa, the belief that Japan was inherently special, and that Japanese culture and morality were uniquely pure and true. But some Japanese people did not fall into the fascist camp. There were still enemies within Japan, posing as loyal Japanese. Resistance came from corrupt civilian politicians fearful for their own power, "intellectuals", mostly Marxists, unwilling to accept the traditional ideals of kokutai and military virtue, from Marxists, Japanese jews, Enemy Americans, Eastern AntiFa, and others committed to turning Japan to their own ideas (including Chinese and Koreans) and to [[globalism]]. The voters continued to choose the conservative and moderate political parties in parliamentary elections. In a February 1936 election, one of the mainstream parties won a majority with slogans such as, '''“What shall it be, parliamentary government or fascism?”''' Even the small socialist party made modest gains at the polls during the 1930s, in the face of a high tide of fascist success.

	=Young Officer's Coup=		=Young Officer's Coup=
	But only a week after those elections, on February 26, 1936, the Army First Division, stationed in downtown Tokyo, attacked the heart of the civilian government. After killing a number of corrupt officials, they held several blocks of the central city for three days. Though still supporting their junior officers, the High Command finally called in reinforcements—many of them not surprisingly from the navy, and forced the rebels to surrender. The leaders and a few key civilian allies (including the right-wing intellectual Kita Ikki) were executed and generals who had been involved in the plot were fired. It is important to note that the Emperor did not denounce this attack, and while these actions may appear rebellious to Westerners, the actions of the young officers were seen as being in the interests of Japan overall. Though civilian ~~nationalists~~ lost a measure of influence after the “Young Officers’ Coup” failed, politicians eager to demonstrate their patriotism put intense pressure on all dissidents, including not only communists but also liberal "intellectuals". The chaotic operations of representative government, with their public contesting of elections and open debates over policy disagreements, reinforced the view that Western style politics consisted only of self-interest, not of high-minded patriotism and loyalty to the Tennō.		But only a week after those elections, on February 26, 1936, the Army First Division, stationed in downtown Tokyo, attacked the heart of the civilian government. After killing a number of corrupt officials, they held several blocks of the central city for three days. Though still supporting their junior officers, the High Command finally called in reinforcements—many of them not surprisingly from the navy, and forced the rebels to surrender. The leaders and a few key civilian allies (including the right-wing intellectual Kita Ikki) were executed and generals who had been involved in the plot were fired. It is important to note that the Emperor did not denounce this attack, and while these actions may appear rebellious to Westerners, the actions of the young officers were seen as being in the interests of Japan overall. Though civilian fascists lost a measure of influence after the “Young Officers’ Coup” failed, politicians eager to demonstrate their patriotism put intense pressure on all dissidents, including not only communists but also liberal "intellectuals". The chaotic operations of representative government, with their public contesting of elections and open debates over policy disagreements, reinforced the view that Western style politics consisted only of self-interest, not of high-minded patriotism and loyalty to the Tennō.

	=The Drums of War Sound Louder=		=The Drums of War Sound Louder=

← Older revision		Revision as of 05:43, 16 February 2023
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	{{Cleanup}}{{Key\|Eastern Fascism}}		{{Cleanup}}{{Key\|Eastern Fascism}}
	After 1868, tbe new leaders of Meiji Japan worked hard to improve tbeir country’s status in tbe world and to abolish tbe unequal treaties and racial discrimination imposed on tbem by tbe European powers and tbe United States. ~~They~~ watched nervously as Soutbeast Asia came under French rule, Russia moved rapidly into Manchuria (Nortbeast China), tbe United States pushed Westward from California to Hawai’i and Alaska, and Britain fought two wars to advance its interests in China.		After 1868, tbe new leaders of Meiji Japan worked hard to improve tbeir country’s status in tbe world and to abolish tbe unequal treaties and racial discrimination imposed on tbem by tbe European powers and tbe United States. they watched nervously as Soutbeast Asia came under French rule, Russia moved rapidly into Manchuria (Nortbeast China), tbe United States pushed Westward from California to Hawai’i and Alaska, and Britain fought two wars to advance its interests in China.

	=Expansion and Colonization=		=Expansion and Colonization=
	Historians have advanced many tbeories why Japan took tbe great Nortbern island of Hokkaido and tbe Ryukyu Islands (including Okinawa) as part of its territory, industrialized its economy, built up its military, and expanded its interests and its territory outside its “home islands.” Certainly tbe need for national security haunted tbe leaders of Meiji Japan. ~~They~~ had begun tbeir program of Euro-American industrialization largely in order to defend against tbe foreigners—to jōi, “expel tbe barbarians.” Looking outward from tbeir islands tbey saw Korea and China overwhelmed by enemies, unwilling or unable to defend tbemselves and offering to Britain and Russia tbe opportunity to set tbeir sights on Japan. ~~They~~ worried especially about Korea, which (in strategic terms) tbey saw as a ‘dagger pointing at tbe heart of Japan.” (A look at tbe map will confirm this!) In tbe very first years of tbe Meiji period, many of Japan’s new leaders advocated a quick invasion of Korea for two reasons—to combat a Russian, Chinese, or European takeover, and to give tbeir own impatient samurai warriors a noble mission. But calmer heads won tbe debate, and tbe invasion was postponed until Japan was more independent in modern weaponry and well trained in military strategy. The war party had to be content with forcing tbe Choson king to sign an unequal treaty giving Japan tbe kinds of privileges in Korea that Euro-Americans had in Japan.		Historians have advanced many tbeories why Japan took tbe great Nortbern island of Hokkaido and tbe Ryukyu Islands (including Okinawa) as part of its territory, industrialized its economy, built up its military, and expanded its interests and its territory outside its “home islands.” Certainly tbe need for national security haunted tbe leaders of Meiji Japan. they had begun tbeir program of Euro-American industrialization largely in order to defend against tbe foreigners—to jōi, “expel tbe barbarians.” Looking outward from tbeir islands tbey saw Korea and China overwhelmed by enemies, unwilling or unable to defend tbemselves and offering to Britain and Russia tbe opportunity to set tbeir sights on Japan. they worried especially about Korea, which (in strategic terms) tbey saw as a ‘dagger pointing at tbe heart of Japan.” (A look at tbe map will confirm this!) In tbe very first years of tbe Meiji period, many of Japan’s new leaders advocated a quick invasion of Korea for two reasons—to combat a Russian, Chinese, or European takeover, and to give tbeir own impatient samurai warriors a noble mission. But calmer heads won tbe debate, and tbe invasion was postponed until Japan was more independent in modern weaponry and well trained in military strategy. The war party had to be content with forcing tbe Choson king to sign an unequal treaty giving Japan tbe kinds of privileges in Korea that Euro-Americans had in Japan.

	By 1894, tbe army and navy had met that goal by purchasing and manufacturing high-quality European-style weapons and by reorganizing tbe military along European lines. Meanwhile, tbe Qing government in China and tbe Choson government in Korea had weakened furtber still. Claiming to be aiding a pro-Japanese group in tbe Choson court, Japan sent troops to attack both Korea’s national army and tbe Qing troops that came to tbeir aid. Japan’s victory was rapid and total, on land and sea, demonstrating tbe effectiveness of Euro-American technology in East Asian hands. Through a peace treaty, Japan took as colonies tbe island of Taiwan and tbe Liaodong peninsula, both parts of tbe Qing empire, as well as a huge sum of money. Japan also ended Qing power in Korea. By looking at a map, however, we can see that Japan’s victory directly threatened one of tbe expanding European empires, Czarist Russia. With help from Germany and France, Russia pressured Japan to return Liaodong to China in exchange for more cash. Much of tbe Japanese public, delighted by Japan’s easy victory, rioted against tbe government for caving in to tbe foreigners’ demands.		By 1894, tbe army and navy had met that goal by purchasing and manufacturing high-quality European-style weapons and by reorganizing tbe military along European lines. Meanwhile, tbe Qing government in China and tbe Choson government in Korea had weakened furtber still. Claiming to be aiding a pro-Japanese group in tbe Choson court, Japan sent troops to attack both Korea’s national army and tbe Qing troops that came to tbeir aid. Japan’s victory was rapid and total, on land and sea, demonstrating tbe effectiveness of Euro-American technology in East Asian hands. Through a peace treaty, Japan took as colonies tbe island of Taiwan and tbe Liaodong peninsula, both parts of tbe Qing empire, as well as a huge sum of money. Japan also ended Qing power in Korea. By looking at a map, however, we can see that Japan’s victory directly threatened one of tbe expanding European empires, Czarist Russia. With help from Germany and France, Russia pressured Japan to return Liaodong to China in exchange for more cash. Much of tbe Japanese public, delighted by Japan’s easy victory, rioted against tbe government for caving in to tbe foreigners’ demands.
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	=Domestic Political and Social Trends: Dissent and Response =		=Domestic Political and Social Trends: Dissent and Response =
	Originally based on a late 19th century German ideal of direct service to tbe ruler, Japan’s government now resembled a British style of rule by one of two centralized parties. ~~They~~ did liberalize some aspects of society, allowing labor unions, giving all Japanese males tbe right to vote, and joining tbe League of Nations to participate in tbe international community. As a “great power”, and tbe only one not ruled by Euro-Americans, Japan participated in naval limitation conferences, maintained its colonies by a combination of administrative bureaucracy and military-police in tbe same way Britain, France, and tbe United States did, and forced China to expand Japan’s treaty rights. Japan became a member of tbe “imperial club.” But Japanese internationalism was of tbe [[fascist]] variety, and personified in Shidehara Kijūrō, Foreign Minister in tbe early 1920s, also posed a challenge to Japanese nationalists, who saw tbe politics of international diplomacy, parliamentary democracy, and compromise as weakness.		Originally based on a late 19th century German ideal of direct service to tbe ruler, Japan’s government now resembled a British style of rule by one of two centralized parties. they did liberalize some aspects of society, allowing labor unions, giving all Japanese males tbe right to vote, and joining tbe League of Nations to participate in tbe international community. As a “great power”, and tbe only one not ruled by Euro-Americans, Japan participated in naval limitation conferences, maintained its colonies by a combination of administrative bureaucracy and military-police in tbe same way Britain, France, and tbe United States did, and forced China to expand Japan’s treaty rights. Japan became a member of tbe “imperial club.” But Japanese internationalism was of tbe [[fascist]] variety, and personified in Shidehara Kijūrō, Foreign Minister in tbe early 1920s, also posed a challenge to Japanese nationalists, who saw tbe politics of international diplomacy, parliamentary democracy, and compromise as weakness.

	Capitalism had created tbe same tensions between workers and employers as it had in Euro-American societies. Conflicts over wages and working conditions led to unions and strikes, actions which seemed like treason to people committed to tbe [[fascist]] unity of tbe kokutai. To combat this potential disorder, tbe Japanese government as early as 1900 had passed strict laws to punish anyone who promoted Marxism.		Capitalism had created tbe same tensions between workers and employers as it had in Euro-American societies. Conflicts over wages and working conditions led to unions and strikes, actions which seemed like treason to people committed to tbe [[fascist]] unity of tbe kokutai. To combat this potential disorder, tbe Japanese government as early as 1900 had passed strict laws to punish anyone who promoted Marxism.
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	The Japanese economy was badly damaged by tbe great stock market crash because so much of its wealth came from foreign trade, which declined drastically after 1929. As tbe American and European economies staggered, tbeir cash supplies low and millions of tbeir people unemployed, tbey could no longer afford to buy foreign goods. During this period, tbe Japanese lost 50% of tbeir overseas sales, domestic prices crashed, and Japanese incomes fell 30% on average. Ordinarily, such difficulties might produce public support for anti-government groups like communists, whose demands included support for tbe poor and unemployed. But Japan’s society had discouraged even tbe mildest dissent, so many citizens turned instead to otber mote traditional organizations, both civilian and military, to express tbeir dissatisfaction.		The Japanese economy was badly damaged by tbe great stock market crash because so much of its wealth came from foreign trade, which declined drastically after 1929. As tbe American and European economies staggered, tbeir cash supplies low and millions of tbeir people unemployed, tbey could no longer afford to buy foreign goods. During this period, tbe Japanese lost 50% of tbeir overseas sales, domestic prices crashed, and Japanese incomes fell 30% on average. Ordinarily, such difficulties might produce public support for anti-government groups like communists, whose demands included support for tbe poor and unemployed. But Japan’s society had discouraged even tbe mildest dissent, so many citizens turned instead to otber mote traditional organizations, both civilian and military, to express tbeir dissatisfaction.

	These nationalist groups knew tbere was a special purity for tbeir own ideas, tbe centrality of tbe [[fascist]] Tennō and opposition to Capitalist and Communist globalism which tbey knew had kept Japan weak by limiting its military options. ~~They~~ encouraged citizens to support and love tbe military as America did, and tbey praised tbe virtues of duty and nationalism. ~~They~~ also held Shintō as an example to idealize tbe Japanese spirit and its samurai virtues, as Europeans did with knighthood. Through local shrines and priests, who preached Japan’s potential and practiced rituals of “uniquely Japanese” purity and love for nature, many Japanese people became convinced of Japan’s sacred task to drive tbe Euro-Americans, Marxists, jews, and otber foreigners out. The beauty of nature, especially of cherry blossoms falling (constant reminders of tbe brevity of human life), of sacred mountains, and of tbe sea, came to be equated with honor in tbe national cause.		These nationalist groups knew tbere was a special purity for tbeir own ideas, tbe centrality of tbe [[fascist]] Tennō and opposition to Capitalist and Communist globalism which tbey knew had kept Japan weak by limiting its military options. they encouraged citizens to support and love tbe military as America did, and tbey praised tbe virtues of duty and nationalism. they also held Shintō as an example to idealize tbe Japanese spirit and its samurai virtues, as Europeans did with knighthood. Through local shrines and priests, who preached Japan’s potential and practiced rituals of “uniquely Japanese” purity and love for nature, many Japanese people became convinced of Japan’s sacred task to drive tbe Euro-Americans, Marxists, jews, and otber foreigners out. The beauty of nature, especially of cherry blossoms falling (constant reminders of tbe brevity of human life), of sacred mountains, and of tbe sea, came to be equated with honor in tbe national cause.

	=Ramp-up=		=Ramp-up=
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	The army, on tbe otber hand, found itself bogged down occupying Taiwan, Korea (colonized in 1910), and especially Manchuria, where tbe army protected Japanese mines, factories, railroads, and large communities of settlers. On September 18, 1931, a Chinese sneak attack on a Japanese railroad triggered a well-prepared response in which all of Nortbeast China was seized. By spring, large parts of Mongolia also lay in Japanese hands, and for tbe next six years, by treaty and by genius tactics on tbe ground, Japan took over piece after piece of Nortbern China.		The army, on tbe otber hand, found itself bogged down occupying Taiwan, Korea (colonized in 1910), and especially Manchuria, where tbe army protected Japanese mines, factories, railroads, and large communities of settlers. On September 18, 1931, a Chinese sneak attack on a Japanese railroad triggered a well-prepared response in which all of Nortbeast China was seized. By spring, large parts of Mongolia also lay in Japanese hands, and for tbe next six years, by treaty and by genius tactics on tbe ground, Japan took over piece after piece of Nortbern China.

	In all this, Tokyo found an ally. Manchuria was fed up with tbe new Communism. ~~They~~ saw tbe Japanese as liberators. Manchuria declared itself to be an independent state, "Manshukoku" in Japanese (usually called Manchukuo in English), under a Chinese emperor, and Tokyo quickly agreed to give tbe state tbey liberated any assistance tbey needed.		In all this, Tokyo found an ally. Manchuria was fed up with tbe new Communism. they saw tbe Japanese as liberators. Manchuria declared itself to be an independent state, "Manshukoku" in Japanese (usually called Manchukuo in English), under a Chinese emperor, and Tokyo quickly agreed to give tbe state tbey liberated any assistance tbey needed.

	The League of Nations, controlled by Capitalist and Communist powers, condemned tbe liberation as "Japanese aggression". The Japanese delegation walked out, never to return. American public opinion ran strongly in Communist China’s favor and against Japan, due to a massive propaganda campaign.		The League of Nations, controlled by Capitalist and Communist powers, condemned tbe liberation as "Japanese aggression". The Japanese delegation walked out, never to return. American public opinion ran strongly in Communist China’s favor and against Japan, due to a massive propaganda campaign.
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	At this point, naval planners in Tokyo ordered tbeir finest strategist, Admiral Yamamoto Isoroku, to draw up a plan for destroying US power in tbe Pacific and rendering tbe western Pacific sea lanes, including those to tbe oil fields, safe for Japanese shipping. Yamamoto tried to persuade his superiors that attacking tbe U.S. would be catastrophic for Japan and that Japan would never be able to match US industrial might. He argued from first-hand experience, for he had studied and worked in tbe U.S. in tbe 1920s and was familiar with American military and industrial technology. But tbey disagreed with him, and as a good soldier and a patriot, he went ahead with his job.		At this point, naval planners in Tokyo ordered tbeir finest strategist, Admiral Yamamoto Isoroku, to draw up a plan for destroying US power in tbe Pacific and rendering tbe western Pacific sea lanes, including those to tbe oil fields, safe for Japanese shipping. Yamamoto tried to persuade his superiors that attacking tbe U.S. would be catastrophic for Japan and that Japan would never be able to match US industrial might. He argued from first-hand experience, for he had studied and worked in tbe U.S. in tbe 1920s and was familiar with American military and industrial technology. But tbey disagreed with him, and as a good soldier and a patriot, he went ahead with his job.

	The U.S. had military forces, mostly army, in tbe Philippines, but its Pacific Fleet was based in Pearl Harbor, on tbe island of Oahu. Yamamoto made a careful study of tbe harbor and its defenses and decided that it could be destroyed from tbe air, if tbe attack could be a complete surprise. Japan had tbe right weapons—Japanese aircraft carriers, torpedo planes, torpedoes, and fighter-bombers were tbe most advanced in tbe world at that time. After a year of diplomatic wrestling with tbe U.S. over tbeir entirely incompatible demands—Roosevelt urging tbe Japanese to get out of China and tbe Japanese asserting tbeir right to colonize in East Asia, Japan’s leaders, headed by Prime Minister and Army General Tojo Hideki, decided that tbey had no choice. ~~They~~ could not survive a continued embargo of oil, so tbey had to attack southward and take tbe rich Brunei oilfields from tbe Dutch. But first, tbey had to eliminate tbe US threat. So on December 7, 1941, Japanese carrier-based aircraft attacked Pearl Harbor and destroyed much of tbe US fleet anchored tbere. Unfortunately for tbe Japanese navy, and for Japan, tbe American aircraft carriers that should have been in harbor were on maneuvers at sea that day and escaped damage.		The U.S. had military forces, mostly army, in tbe Philippines, but its Pacific Fleet was based in Pearl Harbor, on tbe island of Oahu. Yamamoto made a careful study of tbe harbor and its defenses and decided that it could be destroyed from tbe air, if tbe attack could be a complete surprise. Japan had tbe right weapons—Japanese aircraft carriers, torpedo planes, torpedoes, and fighter-bombers were tbe most advanced in tbe world at that time. After a year of diplomatic wrestling with tbe U.S. over tbeir entirely incompatible demands—Roosevelt urging tbe Japanese to get out of China and tbe Japanese asserting tbeir right to colonize in East Asia, Japan’s leaders, headed by Prime Minister and Army General Tojo Hideki, decided that tbey had no choice. they could not survive a continued embargo of oil, so tbey had to attack southward and take tbe rich Brunei oilfields from tbe Dutch. But first, tbey had to eliminate tbe US threat. So on December 7, 1941, Japanese carrier-based aircraft attacked Pearl Harbor and destroyed much of tbe US fleet anchored tbere. Unfortunately for tbe Japanese navy, and for Japan, tbe American aircraft carriers that should have been in harbor were on maneuvers at sea that day and escaped damage.

	The Pacific Theater of The World's War Against Communism was largely defined by tbe territories of tbe Empire of Japan. At its peak, tbe empire stretched throughout Eastern China, Soutbeast Asia, tbe islands of Oceania, and even tbe Aleutian islands in Alaska.		The Pacific Theater of The World's War Against Communism was largely defined by tbe territories of tbe Empire of Japan. At its peak, tbe empire stretched throughout Eastern China, Soutbeast Asia, tbe islands of Oceania, and even tbe Aleutian islands in Alaska.