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[[File:The Ash Yggdrasil by Friedrich Wilhelm Heine.jpg|thumb|250px|"The Ash Yggdrasil" (1886) by Friedrich Wilhelm Heine.]]
In [[Germanic mythology]], '''Yggdrasil''', from [[Old Norse]] '''Yggdrasill''', is an immense tree that is central in Norse cosmology or [[Paganism]]; the [[world tree]] or tree of life, and around the tree existed nine worlds. It is generally considered to mean "Ygg's ([[Odin]]'s) horse".

Yggdrasil is attested in the ''[[Poetic Edda]]'', compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and the ''[[Prose Edda]]'', written in the 13th century by [[Snorri Sturluson]]. In both sources, Yggdrasil is an immense [[Fraxinus excelsior|ash tree]] that is central and considered very holy. The [[Æsir|gods]] go to Yggdrasil daily to hold their courts. The branches of Yggdrasil extend far into the heavens, and the tree is supported by three roots that extend far away into other locations; one to the well [[Urðarbrunnr]] in the heavens, one to the spring [[Hvergelmir]], and another to the well [[Mímisbrunnr]]. Creatures live within Yggdrasil, including the wyrm (dragon) [[Níðhöggr]], an [[Veðrfölnir and eagle|unnamed eagle]], and the stags [[Dáinn, Dvalinn, Duneyrr and Duraþrór]].

Conflicting scholarly theories have been proposed about the etymology of the name ''Yggdrasill'', the possibility that the tree is of another species than ash, the relation to tree lore and to [[Eurasia]]n [[shamanism|shamanic]] lore, the possible relation to the trees [[Mímameiðr]] and [[Læraðr]], [[Hoddmímis holt]], the [[sacred tree at Uppsala]], and the fate of Yggdrasil during the events of [[Ragnarök]].

==Terminology==
[[File:Om Yggdrasil by Frølich.jpg|thumb|250px|Yggdrasil (1895) by [[Lorenz Frølich]].]]
[[File:Norns (1832) from Die Helden und Götter des Nordens, oder Das Buch der sagen.jpg|thumb|250px|"Norns" (1832) from ''Die Helden und Götter des Nordens, oder das Buch der Sagen''.]]
[[File:The Tree of Yggdrasil.jpg|thumb|250px|The title page of Olive Bray's 1908 translation of the ''Poetic Edda'' by [[W. G. Collingwood]].]]
[[File:Die Nornen Urd, Werdanda, Skuld, unter der Welteiche Yggdrasil by Ludwig Burger.jpg|thumb|250px|The norns Urðr, Verðandi, and Skuld beneath the world tree Yggdrasil (1882) by [[Ludwig Burger]].]]
The generally accepted meaning of Old Norse ''Yggdrasill'' is "Odin's horse". This conclusion is drawn on the basis that ''drasill'' means "horse" and ''Ygg(r)'' is one of [[List of names of Odin|Odin's many names]]. The ''Poetic Edda'' poem ''[[Hávamál]]'' describes how Odin sacrificed himself to himself by hanging from a tree, making this tree Odin's [[gallows]]. This tree may have been Yggdrasil. Gallows can be called "the horse of the hanged" and therefore Odin's [[gallows]] may have developed into the expression "Odin's horse", which then became the name of the tree.<ref name=SIMEK375>Simek (2007:375).</ref>

Nevertheless, scholarly opinions regarding the precise meaning of the name ''Yggdrasill'' vary, particularly on the issue of whether ''Yggdrasill'' is the name of the tree itself. In the [[Prose Edda]] the tree is usually not just called ''Yggdrasil'' but ''askr Yggdrasils''. Old Norse ''askr'' means "ash tree" and according to e.g. the [[Inflection| inflectional system]] of [[Icelandic language]] ''askr Yggdrasils'' means "Yggdrasill's ash". [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] has the best preserved [[Inflection|inflectional system]] of the Norse languages and the [[Prose Edda]] was also written in old Icelandic. These etymologies do though rely on a [[Linguistic reconstruction|presumed but unattested]] ''*Yggsdrasill''.<ref name=SIMEK375/>

A third interpretation, presented by F. Detter, is that the name ''Yggdrasill'' refers to the word ''yggr'' ("terror"), yet not in reference to the Odinic name, but rather as ''Yggdrasill'' as the "tree of terror, gallows". F. R. Schröder has proposed a fourth etymology according to which ''yggdrasill'' means "yew pillar", deriving ''yggia'' from ''*igwja'' (meaning "[[Taxus baccata|yew-tree]]"), and ''drasill'' from ''*dher-'' (meaning "support").<ref name=SIMEK375/>

==Attestations==
===''Poetic Edda''===
In the ''Poetic Edda'', the tree is mentioned in the three poems ''[[Völuspá]]'', ''[[Hávamál]]'', and ''[[Grímnismál]]''.

====''Völuspá''====

In the second stanza of the ''Poetic Edda'' poem ''[[Völuspá]]'', the [[völva]] (a shamanic seeress) reciting the poem to the god Odin says that she remembers far back to "early times", being raised by [[Jötunn|jötnar]], recalls [[Norse cosmology|nine worlds]] and "nine wood-ogresses" (Old Norse ''nío ídiðiur''), and when Yggdrasil was a seed ("glorious tree of good measure, under the ground").<ref name=DRONKE7>Dronke (1997:7).</ref> In stanza 19, the völva says:
<blockquote>
:An ash I know there stands,
:Yggdrasill is its name,
:a tall tree, showered
:with shining [[loam]].
:From there come the dews
:that drop in the valleys.
:It stands forever green over
:Urðr's well.<ref name=DRONKE11-12>Dronke (1997:11–12).</ref>
</blockquote>
In stanza 20, the völva says that from the lake under the tree come three "maidens deep in knowledge" named [[Urðr]], [[Verðandi]], and [[Skuld]]. The maidens "incised the slip of wood," "laid down laws" and "chose lives" for the children of mankind and the destinies (''[[Wyrd|ørlǫg]]'') of men.<ref name=DRONKE12>Dronke (1997:12).</ref> In stanza 27, the völva details that she is aware that "[[Heimdallr]]'s hearing is couched beneath the bright-nurtured holy tree."<ref name=DRONKE14>Dronke (1997:14).</ref> In stanza 45, Yggdrasil receives a final mention in the poem. The völva describes, as a part of the onset of Ragnarök, that Heimdallr blows [[Gjallarhorn]], that Odin speaks with [[Mímir]]'s head, and then:
<blockquote>
:Yggdrasill shivers,
:the ash, as it stands.
:The old tree groans,
:and the giant slips free.<ref name=DRONKE19>Dronke (1997:19).</ref>
</blockquote>

====''Hávamál''====
[[File:The Sacrifice of Odin by Frølich.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Wodan]] sacrificing himself upon Yggdrasil (1895) by Lorenz Frølich.]]
In stanza 34 of the poem ''[[Hávamál]]'', Odin describes how he once sacrificed himself to himself by hanging on a tree. The stanza reads:
<blockquote>
:I know that I hung on a windy tree
:[[Numbers in Norse mythology|nine]] long nights,
:wounded with a spear, dedicated to Odin,
:myself to myself,
:on that tree of which no man knows
:from where its roots run.<ref name=LARRINGTON34>Larrington (1999:34).</ref>
</blockquote>
In the stanza that follows, Odin describes how he had no food nor drink there, that he peered downward, and that "I took up the runes, screaming I took them, then I fell back from there."<ref name=LARRINGTON34/> While Yggdrasil is not mentioned by name in the poem and other trees exist in Norse mythology, the tree is near universally accepted as Yggdrasil, and if the tree is Yggdrasil, then the name ''Yggdrasil'' directly relates to this story.<ref name=LINDOW321>Lindow (2001:321).</ref>

====''Grímnismál''====
In the poem ''[[Grímnismál]]'', Odin (disguised as ''[[List of names of Odin|Grímnir]]'') provides the young [[Agnar]] with cosmological lore. Yggdrasil is first mentioned in the poem in stanza 29, where Odin says that, because the "[[Bifröst|bridge of the Æsir]] burns" and the "sacred waters boil," Thor must wade through the rivers [[Körmt and Örmt]] and two rivers named [[Kerlaugar]] to go "sit as judge at the ash of Yggdrasill." In the stanza that follows, a [[Horses of the Æsir|list of names of horses]] are given that the Æsir ride to "sit as judges" at Yggdrasil.<ref name=LARRINGTON56>Larrington (1999:56).</ref>

In stanza 31, Odin says that the ash Yggdrasil has three roots that grow in three directions. He details that beneath the first lives [[Hel (being)|Hel]], under the second live frost jötnar, and beneath the third lives mankind. Stanza 32 details that a squirrel named Ratatoskr must run across Yggdrasil and bring "the eagle's word" from above to Níðhöggr below. Stanza 33 describes that four [[Red deer|hart]]s named Dáinn, Dvalinn, Duneyrr and Duraþrór consume "the highest boughs" of Yggdrasil.<ref name=LARRINGTON56/>

In stanza 34, Odin says that more serpents lie beneath Yggdrasil "than any fool can imagine" and lists them as Góinn and Móinn (possibly meaning Old Norse "land animal"<ref name=SIMEK115>Simek (2007:115).</ref>), which he describes as sons of Grafvitnir (Old Norse, possibly "ditch wolf"<ref name=SIMEK116>Simek (2007:116).</ref>), Grábakr (Old Norse "Greyback"<ref name=SIMEK115/>), Grafvölluðr (Old Norse, possibly "the one digging under the plain" or possibly amended as "the one ruling in the ditch"<ref name=SIMEK116/>), Ófnir (Old Norse "the winding one, the twisting one"<ref name=SIMEK252>Simek (2007:252).</ref>), and Sváfnir (Old Norse, possibly "the one who puts to sleep = death"<ref name=SIMEK305>Simek (2007:305).</ref>), who Odin adds that he thinks will forever gnaw on the tree's branches.<ref name=LARRINGTON56/>

In stanza 35, Odin says that Yggdrasil "suffers agony more than men know", as a hart bites it from above, it decays on its sides, and Níðhöggr bites it from beneath.<ref name=LARRINGTON57>Larrington (1999:57).</ref> In stanza 44, Odin provides a list of things that are what he refers to as the "noblest" of their kind. Within the list, Odin mentions Yggdrasil first, and states that it is the "noblest of trees".<ref name=LARRINGTON58>Larrington (1999:58).</ref>

===''Prose Edda''===

Yggdrasil is mentioned in two books in the ''[[Prose Edda]]'', in ''[[Gylfaginning]]'' and ''[[Skáldskaparmál]]''. In ''Gylfaginning'', Yggdrasil is introduced in chapter 15. In chapter 15, [[Gangleri]] (described as king [[Gylfi]] in disguise) asks where is the chief or holiest place of the gods. [[High, Just-As-High, and Third|High]] replies "It is the ash Yggdrasil. There the gods must hold their courts each day". Gangleri asks what there is to tell about Yggdrasil. [[High, Just-As-High, and Third|Just-As-High]] says that Yggdrasil is the biggest and best of all trees, that its branches extend out over all of the world and reach out over the sky. Three of the roots of the tree support it, and these three roots also extend extremely far: one "is among the [[Æsir]], the second among the frost jötnar, and the third over [[Niflheim]]. The root over Niflheim is gnawed at by the wyrm [[Níðhöggr]], and beneath this root is the spring [[Hvergelmir]]. Beneath the root that reaches the frost jötnar is the well [[Mímisbrunnr]], "which has wisdom and intelligence contained in it, and the master of the well is called [[Mímir|Mimir]]". Just-As-High provides details regarding Mímisbrunnr and then describes that the third root of the well "extends to heaven" and that beneath the root is the "very holy" well [[Urðarbrunnr]]. At Urðarbrunnr the gods hold their court, and every day the Æsir ride to Urðarbrunnr up over the bridge [[Bifröst]]. Later in the chapter, a stanza from ''Grímnismál'' mentioning Yggdrasil is quoted in support.<ref name=FAULKES17>Faulkes (1995:17).</ref>

In chapter 16, Gangleri asks "what other particularly notable things are there to tell about the ash?" High says there is quite a lot to tell about. High continues that an eagle sits on the branches of Yggdrasil and that it has much knowledge. Between the eyes of the eagle sits a hawk called [[Veðrfölnir]]. A squirrel called [[Ratatoskr]] scurries up and down the ash Yggdrasil carrying "malicious messages" between the eagle and Níðhöggr. Four stags named Dáinn, Dvalinn, Duneyrr, and Duraþrór run between the branches of Yggdrasil and consume its foilage. In the spring Hvergelmir are so many snakes along with Níðhöggr "that no tongue can enumerate them". Two stanzas from ''Grímnismál'' are then cited in support. High continues that the norns that live by the holy well Urðarbrunnr each day take water from the well and mud from around it and pour it over Yggdrasil so that the branches of the ash do not rot away or decay. High provides more information about Urðarbrunnr, cites a stanza from ''Völuspá'' in support, and adds that [[dew]] falls from Yggdrasil to the earth, explaining that "this is what people call [[Honeydew (secretion)|honeydew]], and from it bees feed".<ref name=FAULKES18-19>Faulkes (1995:18–19).</ref>

In chapter 41, the stanza from ''Grímnismál'' is quoted that mentions that Yggdrasil is the foremost of trees.<ref name=FAULKES34>Faulkes (1995:34).</ref> In chapter 54, as part of the events of [[Ragnarök]], High describes that Odin will ride to the well Mímisbrunnr and consult Mímir on behalf of himself and his people. After this, "the ash Yggdrasil will shake and nothing will be unafraid in heaven or on earth", and then the Æsir and [[Einherjar]] will don their war gear and advance to the field of [[Vígríðr]]. Further into the chapter, the stanza in ''Völuspá'' that details this sequence is cited.<ref name=FAULKES54>Faulkes (1995:54).</ref>

In the ''Prose Edda'' book ''[[Skáldskaparmál]]'', Yggdrasil receives a single mention, though not by name. In chapter 64, names for [[king]]s and [[duke]]s are given. "Illustrious one" is provided as an example, appearing in a Christianity-influenced work by the [[skald]] [[Hallvarðr Háreksblesi]]: "There is not under the pole of the earth [Yggdrasil] an illustrious one closer to the lord of [[monk]]s [God] than you."<ref name=FAULKES146>Faulkes (1995:146).</ref>

==Theories==
[[File:Tapeten-a1.jpg|thumb|250px|This large tree in the Viking Age [[Överhogdal tapestries]] may be Yggdrasil with [[Gullinkambi]] on top.<ref name=SCHON50>Schön (2004:50).</ref>]]
[[Image:Líf and Lífthrasir by Lorenz Frølich.jpg|thumb|250px|Líf and Lífþrasir after emerging from Hoddmímis holt (1895) by Lorenz Frølich]]
[[File:Mysselhoj da 070407.jpg|thumb|250px|A tree grows atop ''Mysselhøj'', <br>a [[Nordic Bronze Age]] [[burial mound]] in [[Roskilde]], [[Denmark]].]]
[[Hilda Ellis Davidson]] comments that the existence of nine worlds around Yggdrasil is mentioned more than once in Old Norse sources, but the identity of the worlds is never stated outright, though it can be deduced from various sources. Davidson comments that "no doubt the identity of the nine varied from time to time as the emphasis changed or new imagery arrived". Davidson says that it is unclear where the nine worlds are located in relation to the tree; they could either exist one above the other or perhaps be grouped around the tree, but there are references to worlds existing beneath the tree, while the gods are pictured as in the sky, a rainbow bridge ([[Bifröst]]) connecting the tree with other worlds. Davidson opines that "those who have tried to produce a convincing diagram of the [[Scandinavia]]n cosmos from what we are told in the sources have only added to the confusion".
<ref name=DAVIDSON69>Davidson (1993:69).</ref>

Davidson notes parallels between Yggdrasil and [[shamanism|shamanic]] lore in northern [[Eurasia]]:
<blockquote>
:[...] the conception of the tree rising through a number of worlds is found in northern Eurasia and forms part of the shamanic lore shared by many peoples of this region. This seems to be a very ancient conception, perhaps based on the [[Pole Star]], the centre of the heavens, an the image of the central tree in Scandinavia may have been influenced by it [...]. Among [[Siberia]]n shamans, a central tree may be used as a ladder to ascend the heavens [...].<ref name=DAVIDSON69/>
</blockquote>

Davidson says that the notion of an eagle atop a tree and the world serpent coiled around the roots of the tree has parallels in other cosmologies from [[Asia]]. She goes on to say that Norse cosmology may have been influenced by these Asiatic cosmologies from a northern location. Davidson adds, on the other hand, that it is attested that the [[Germanic people]]s worshiped their [[Germanic deities|deities]] in open forest clearings and that a [[sky deity|sky god]] was particularly connected with the [[oak]] tree, and therefore "a central tree was a natural symbol for them also".<ref name=DAVIDSON69/>

===Mímameiðr, Hoddmímis holt and Ragnarök===

Connections have been proposed between the wood [[Hoddmímis holt]] ([[Old Norse]] "Hoard-[[Mímir]]'s"<ref name=SIMEK154>Simek (2007:154).</ref> [[Woodland|holt]]) and the tree [[Mímameiðr]] ("Mímir's tree"), generally thought to refer to the world tree Yggdrasil, and the spring [[Mímisbrunnr]].<ref name=SIMEK154>Simek (2007:154).</ref> John Lindow concurs that ''Mímameiðr'' may be another name for Yggdrasil and that if the Hoard-Mímir of the name ''Hoddmímis holt'' is the same figure as [[Mímir]] (associated with the spring named after him, Mímisbrunnr), then the Mímir's holt—Yggdrasil—and Mímir's spring may be within the same proximity.<ref name=LINDOW179>Lindow (2001:179).</ref>

Carolyne Larrington notes that it is nowhere expressly stated what will happen to Yggdrasil during the events of [[Ragnarök]]. Larrington points to a connection between the primordial figure of [[Mímir]] and Yggdrasil in the poem ''[[Völuspá]]'', and theorizes that "it is possible that Hoddmimir is another name for Mimir, and that the [[Líf and Lífþrasir|two survivors]] hide in Yggdrasill."<ref name=LARRINGTON269>Larrington (1999:269).</ref>

[[Rudolf Simek]] theorizes that the survival of [[Líf and Lífþrasir]] through Ragnarök by hiding in Hoddmímis holt is "a case of reduplication of the anthropogeny, understandable from the cyclic nature of the Eddic escatology." Simek says that Hoddmímis holt "should not be understood literally as a wood or even a forest in which the two keep themselves hidden, but rather as an alternative name for the world-tree Yggdrasill. Thus, the creation of mankind from tree trunks (Askr, Embla) is repeated after the Ragnarǫk as well." Simek says that in [[Germanic Europe|Germanic regions]], the concept of mankind originating from trees is ancient. Simek additionally points out legendary parallels in a [[Bavaria]]n legend of a [[shepherd]] who lives inside a tree, whose descendants repopulate the land after life there has been wiped out by plague (citing a retelling by F. R. Schröder). In addition, Simek points to an Old Norse parallel in the figure of [[Örvar-Oddr]], "who is rejuvenated after living as a tree-man (''Ǫrvar-Odds saga'' 24–27)".<ref name=SIMEKANDSCHRODER>Simek (2007:189). For Schröder, see Schröder (1931).</ref>

===Warden trees, Irminsul, and sacred trees===

Continuing as late as the 19th century, [[Vörðr|warden trees]] were venerated in areas of Germany and Scandinavia, considered to be guardians and bringers of luck, and offerings were sometimes made to them. A massive [[birch]] tree standing atop a [[tumulus|burial mound]] and located beside a farm in western [[Norway]] is recorded as having had ale poured over its roots during festivals. The tree was felled in 1874.<ref name=DAVIDSON170>Davidson (1993:170).</ref>

Davidson comments that "the position of the tree in the centre as a source of luck and protection for gods and men is confirmed" by these rituals to Warden Trees. Davidson notes that the gods are described as meeting beneath Yggdrasil to hold their [[thing (assembly)|things]], and that the pillars venerated by the Germanic peoples, such as the pillar [[Irminsul]], were also symbolic of the center of the world. Davidson details that it would be difficult to ascertain whether a tree or pillar came first, and that this likely depends on if the holy location was in a thickly wooded area or not. Davidson notes that there is no mention of a sacred tree at [[Þingvellir]] in [[Iceland]] yet that [[Adam of Bremen]] describes a [[Sacred tree at Uppsala|huge tree standing next to the Temple at Uppsala]] in [[Sweden]], which Adam describes as remaining green throughout summer and winter, and that no one knew what type of tree it was. Davidson comments that while it is uncertain that Adam's informant actually witnessed that tree is unknown, but that the existence of sacred trees in pre-Christian Germanic Europe is further evidenced by records of their destruction by early Christian missionaries, such as [[Thor's Oak]] by [[Saint Boniface]].<ref name=DAVIDSON170/>

Ken Dowden comments that behind Irminsul, Thor's Oak in Geismar, and the sacred tree at Uppsala "looms a mythic prototype, an Yggdrasil, the world-ash of the Norsemen".<ref name=DOWDEN72>Dowden (2000:72).</ref>

==Modern influence==
Modern works of art depicting Yggdrasil include ''Die Nornen'' (painting, 1888) by K. Ehrenberg; ''Yggdrasil'' ([[fresco]], 1933) by Axel Revold, located in the [[University of Oslo]] library auditorium in [[Oslo]], [[Norway]]; ''Hjortene beiter i løvet på Yggdrasil asken'' (wood [[relief carving]], 1938) on the [[Oslo City Hall]] by Dagfin Werenskjold; and the bronze relief on the doors of the [[Swedish Museum of National Antiquities]] (around 1950) by B. Marklund in [[Stockholm]], Sweden. Poems mentioning Yggdrasil include ''Vårdträdet'' by [[Viktor Rydberg]] and ''Yggdrasill'' by J. Linke.<ref name=SIMEK376>Simek (2007:376).</ref> Yggdrasil leaves is also an item used in the Dragon Quest series. It is used to revive allies in the party if they are fallen.

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book |last=Davidson |first=Hilda Ellis |authorlink=Hilda Ellis Davidson |title=The Lost Beliefs of Northern Europe |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=1993 |location= |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=sWLVZN0H224C&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn=0-203-40850-0}}
* {{Cite book |last=Dowden |first=Ken |authorlink= |title=European Paganism: the Realities of Cult from Antiquity to the Middle Ages |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2000 |location= |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=b-QfhYxtKScC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false |isbn=0-415-12034-9}}
* [[Ursula Dronke|Dronke, Ursula]] (Trans.) (1997). ''The Poetic Edda: Volume II: Mythological Poems''. [[Oxford University Press]]. ISBN 0198111819
* Larrington, Carolyne (Trans.) (1999). ''The Poetic Edda''. [[Oxford World's Classics]]. ISBN 0192839462
* {{Cite book |last=Lindow |first=John |authorlink=John Lindow |title=Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2001 |location= |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=KlT7tv3eMSwC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn=0-19-515382-0}}
* Faulkes, Anthony (Trans.) (1995). ''Edda''. [[Everyman's Library|Everyman]]. ISBN 0-4608-7616-3
* Schön, Ebbe. (2004). ''Asa-Tors hammare, Gudar och Jättar i tro och Tradition''. Fält & Hässler, Värnamo. ISBN 91-89660-41-2
* Schröder, F. R. (1931). "Germanische Schöpfungsmythen" in ''Germanisch-Romanische Monatsschrift'' 19, pp. 1–26.
* [[Rudolf Simek|Simek, Rudolf]] (2007) translated by Angela Hall. ''Dictionary of Northern Mythology''. [[Boydell & Brewer|D.S. Brewer]]. ISBN 0859915131

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Norse mythology]]
[[Category:Paganism]]

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